Problem solvinghas been defined as “a behavioral process . . . which a) makes available a variety of potentially effective response alternatives for dealing with the problematic situation and b) increases the probability of selecting the most effective response from among these various alternatives” (D’Zurilla &Goldfried, 1971, p. 108). In terms that kids might understand, problem solving is what you do to find the solution to a problem that is most likely to work.
George Spivack and his associates (Spivack, Platt, & Shure, 1976) have done most of the research in the area of problem solving, and they have divided it into five separate competencies:
2. Defining the problem and the goal.
3. Generating alternative solutions.
5. Designing a plan.
1. Recognizing a problem.
Not everyone recognizes a problem when it exists. To have this competency means that a student is able to differentiate between instances and not-instances of problems. A prerequisite, of course, is that they know the characteristics of a problem. Kendall and Braswell (1982) define a problem as “a situation to which a person must respond in order to function effectively but for which no effective response alternative is readily available.” In simpler terms, a problem is when you need to do something to get what you want but you don't know what to do or how to do it. Problems can be interpersonal or intra-personal. Interpersonal problems always involve another person, such as having a bigger student extort lunch money from you. On the other hand, an intra-personal problem does not involve anyone other than you, such as losing your lunch money.
If you want to assess whether your students are able to recognize a problem when they see one, you can give them instances and not-instances of problems and see if they can differentiate between them. Consider the following example:
TEACHER: “You get home from school on Monday and find that you left your math book in your desk at school and you have an assignment due on Wednesday. Is there a problem?”
STUDENT: “No.”
TEACHER: “Why not?”
STUDENT: “Because there is something you can do to get what you want and you know what it is.” [In other words, there is an effective response alternative readily available.]
TEACHER: “What is that?”
STUDENT: "You can get the book on Tuesday and still have time to finish the assignment.”
TEACHER: “Here’s another. You get home from school on Monday and find that you left your math book at school. The building is locked up for the evening and you have an assignment due first period on Tuesday. Is there a problem?”
STUDENT: "Yes, because if you wait until Tuesday to get the book, you won’t have time to finish the assignment.”
TEACHER: “Here's another one. You get home from school on Monday and find that you left your math book at school, which is locked up for the night, and you have an assignment due on Tuesday. Your math class meets third period after a study hall. Is that a problem?”
STUDENT: “No, because you can get your book on Tuesday and finish the assignment during the study hall.”
An alternative for younger students might involve using pictures of instances and not-instances of problems.
Teaching students to recognize instances of problems can follow the same procedure as assessment. I recommend using a direct instruction approach similar to the one demonstrated below.
TEACHER: “We have a problem when we need to do something to get what we want, but at the time we need to do something, we don’t know what to do. What’s a problem?”
STUDENT: [state definition of a problem]
TEACHER: “Good! Now here’s an example of a problem. Some bigger kids are picking on you on the playground. You want them to stop, but you don’t know how to make that happen. You have a problem because you need to do something to get the kids to stop picking on you, but you don’t know what to do. Why is this a problem?”
STUDENT: “Because you want them to stop picking on you but you don’t know what to do.”
TEACHER: "Good. Here’s another example of a problem.” [Give several more instances of problems and in each case, be sure to ask your students why each one is a problem.]
TEACHER: “Here are some examples of situations that are not problems. See if you can tell me why each is not a problem. Your best friend at school stops talking to you. You want to know why so you decide to ask her why. Why isn’t this a problem?”
STUDENT: “Because you want to know why she won’t talk to you and you can ask her.”
TEACHER: "Right. You need to do something to get what you want and you know right away what to do. What did you want?”
STUDENT: “To find out why she stopped talking to you.”
TEACHER: “Good. And did you know right away how to get what you wanted?”
STUDENT: “Yes.”
TEACHER: [Continue giving other not-instances of problems and, in each case, asking your students why it is not a problem.]
Before moving on to the second competency, be sure your students pass an assessment on identifying (i.e., labeling) instances and not-instances of problems.
2. Defining the problem and stating the goal(s).
This competency is especially important since many students who have difficulty with problem solving know that a problem exists but cannot define it. The most common error students make is in not including themselves as part of the problem. Consider the following:
TEACHER: “It’s lunch time, you’re hungry, and you’re on the way to the cafeteria with two of your classmates. The school bully stops you all and asks each of you in turn to give him money. The first classmate is not afraid, refuses the bully, and walks away. The second classmate pulls his pockets inside out, holds up his lunch bag, and tells the bully he’s brought his lunch and has no money. The bully looks at you. By this time, he’s good and angry. You are afraid of him and you did bring money for lunch. What’s the problem?”
STUDENTS: “The problem is the bully.”
TEACHER: “And what is your goal (or, What would you like to have happen)?”
STUDENTS: “That he would leave me alone.”
What’s wrong with the above is that the student has not defined the problem correctly. The problem is not simply the bully. He’s only part of the problem. The bully tried to extort money from three students. The first one wasn’t afraid of him and refused. Did this student have a problem? No. The second student didn’t have any money to give to the bully. Did he have a problem? No. The third student has money that he could lose and is afraid of the bully. Does this student have a problem? Yes. He has a problem. What is the problem? Well, it isn’t simply the bully, or the bully extorting money, because the bully wasn’t a problem for the two other students. Only the third student has a problem. His problem is that the bully is trying to extort money from him, he doesn’t want to give the bully his money, and he doesn’t know what to do about it.
This definition of the problem is different from the original definition that included only the bully and the bully’s behavior. By defining the problem as only the bully, the goal becomes one of simply getting rid of him. This goal won’t solve the student’s problem because it doesn’t give him enough information with which to generate a viable alternative solution. It is also entirely external. It puts the responsibility for what happens to the student on parties or forces outside of him, over which he has no control—maybe his luck will change one day and the bully will move to a new neighborhood, take pity on him, or decide to leave him alone. However, learning how to effectively deal with extortion is a more viable solution to this student’s problem than wishing that the bully would disappear or spontaneously change his behavior.
In teaching the skill of defining a problem, first generate a list of student problems to draw from; simply ask your students to brainstorm problems that they encounter in (or out of) school. Remember, brainstorming requires no censorship on your part. Once you have this list, take each problem from it and give it to your students to define and then give them each defined problem and have them write a goal for it. Examples of defined problems and their corresponding goals are listed in the table below.
| Problem | Goal |
|---|---|
| You lose your homework assignment by the time you get home from school and you need to turn it in first thing next day. | Turn in homework on time. |
| Some bigger kids start picking on you at school; you want them to stop but you don’t know what to do to make them stop. | Get the bigger kids to stop picking on you. |
| You like some boy/girl at school but he/she doesn’t pay any attention to you. | Get him/her to pay attention to you. |
| You are having trouble with an assignment in class and you need (want) to get a good grade on it, but you don’t know how. | Successfully complete the assignment. |
| You forgot where your next class meets and your name will be sent to the office for cutting class if you don’t get there on time. | Get to class as quickly as possible. |
| Some kids offer you a cigarette, dope, or alcohol. You don’t want to take it, but you’re afraid of what they’ll think of you if you don’t. | Refuse the offer without losing face. |
3. Generating alternative solutions.
Spivack and his associates (Spivack et al., 1976) consider this skill the most critical or essential problem-solving skill because knowing what else to do in case of failure is the cognitive skill that best prevents, or at least diminishes, the student’s continued frustration and his subsequent need for impulsive behaviors or withdrawal. They consider it a) the single most powerful predictor of maladaptive behavior before training in problem solving; b) the one that is most enhanced by training: and c) the one that, when enhanced, seems to result in concomitant improvement in student behavior (Spivack & Shure, 1974). The ability to turn to another solution may be all the encouragement one needs not to give up. This results in resiliency instead of frustration.
The ability to generate alternative solutions is assessed in much the same way as it is taught, through brainstorming. Simply take a list of defined problems with corresponding goals and present each to a student or group of students and have them brainstorm possible solutions for each. Consider the following:
TEACHER:
“I am going to give you a defined problem with a goal and I want you to tell me as many possible solutions as you can. Remember, a solution is anything you do that will get you what you want without causing any new problems for you. Don’t bother to think about each solution before you give it to me. It can be anything you want. It might turn out to be silly or wrong or something you wouldn’t even try. I still want you to tell me what it is. Any questions? (Pause) OK. The problem as defined is: When you come back to your seat after sharpening your pencil, you find another student sitting there and you know you’ll get into trouble if you’re not in your seat. Your goal is to sit in your seat as soon as possible. Tell me what you could do to solve this problem.”
STUDENTS:
(the students yell these out one by one and you write them on the board, overhead projector, or easel)“Pull him out of my seat.”
“Tell the teacher.”
“Ask him to get out of my seat.”
“Find another seat to sit in."
“Go sit in his seat.”
“Share my seat with him.”
“Sit down on top of him.”
“Beat him up.”
“Sit on the floor."
“Hide so the teacher won’t see you.”
“Go back to the pencil sharpener and make believe you’re still sharpening your pencil (stall).”
“Stand there until he moves.”
“Keep asking him to move until he moves (i.e., broken-record approach).”
(Keep encouraging your students to give you more “solutions” until it appears they are dried up.)
Spivack and his associates (Spivack et al., 1976) found that the number of different solutions generated by a student considered competent at this skill is at least 3 or 4 and that children as young as 4 years old are considered capable of developing this skill.
4. Evaluating solutions.
Once your students are able to generate a number of alternative solutions to a problem, they need to evaluate each solution according to the following criteria: a) Efficacy—will this solution help me reach my goal (i.e., get me what I want) without creating more problems for me? and b) feasibility—will I be able to do it (i.e., take the action cited in my solution)? Starting with the list of solutions generated through brainstorming, help your students analyze each solution and evaluate it with regard to efficacy and feasibility. If they think it will help them get what they want without creating new problems for them, instruct them to label the solution “E” for effective. If they aren’t certain the solution will help them get what they want without creating new problems, they should label it “e” to indicate their doubt. If they know the solution would definitely not get them what they want, they should cross out (eliminate) the solution. If they think they could definitely do it, they should label the solution “F” for feasible. If they aren’t sure, they should label the solution with an “f.” If they know they couldn’t do it, they should eliminate the solution.
When they are all finished with each solution, they should first look for any solutions labeled both “E” and “F.” These are the solutions with the best chance of working since they are both effective and feasible. These are the solutions to try first. If there aren’t any solutions designated both effective and feasible, you can brainstorm again to see if there was anything you missed, or reevaluate the solutions you have, or try one of the solutions you have some doubts about. The goal is to generate as many possible (i.e., “E” and “F”) solutions as you can. The more you have, the more likely it is you will find one that really works. The teacher must act as a facilitator. This means you don’t tell your students which solutions are effective or feasible and which are not; you ask the students and let them tell you. If it becomes obvious they are having difficulty evaluating solutions, then you should help them, but only help—do not give them the answer. They must arrive at the answer themselves. Be prepared to ask pointed questions. For example:
TEACHER: “OK, let’s look at the first solution, ‘Pull him out of my seat.’ Would this work? Would this get you what you want (to sit in your seat as soon as possible) without creating any new problems for you?” [wait for response]
STUDENTS: “Yes, it would get you what you want.”
TEACHER: “It could get you in your seat as soon as possible. Could it also create some new problems for you?”
STUDENTS: “Maybe, maybe not.”
TEACHER: “How many of you think it might create some new problems?”
STUDENTS: [a few students raise their hands]
TEACHER: [address question to these students] “OK, why do you think pulling the student out of your seat might make new problems for you?”
STUDENTS: [no response]
TEACHER: “Who can tell me what might happen if you tried to pull the student out of your seat?”
STUDENTS: “He might put up a fight and you could get hurt (or hurt him) and get into trouble for fighting (or hurting him).”
TEACHER: “OK, how many of you still think that the first solution is effective (would get you what you wanted without creating new problems for you)?”
TEACHER: “It could get you in your seat as soon as possible. Could it also create some new problems for you?”
STUDENTS: “Maybe, maybe not.”
TEACHER: “How many of you think it might create some new problems?”
STUDENTS: [a few students raise their hands]
TEACHER: [address question to these students] “OK, why do you think pulling the student out of your seat might make new problems for you?”
STUDENTS: [no response]
TEACHER: “Who can tell me what might happen if you tried to pull the student out of your seat?”
STUDENTS: “He might put up a fight and you could get hurt (or hurt him) and get into trouble for fighting (or hurting him).”
TEACHER: “OK, how many of you still think that the first solution is effective (would get you what you wanted without creating new problems for you)?”
STUDENTS: [no students raise hands]
TEACHER: “Should we label this “E,” “e,” or should we cross it out?”
STUDENTS: “Cross it out!”
TEACHER: “Why did we get rid of it?”
STUDENTS: “Because it wouldn’t help us get what we wanted without making new problems for us.”
5. Designing a plan.
The last step in the problem-solving process is to take the best solution from the list of solutions generated and make a list of things you would have to do to implement that solution. This skill requires the ability to identify obstacles that might have to be overcome, as well as the understanding that goal satisfaction may not occur immediately. This can also be accomplished through brainstorming. Consider the following:
TEACHER: “Now that we have decided to try the solution of being assertive (using broken-record approach) and asking the student in our seat to move over and over again until he does, let’s make a plan to help us carry out this solution. What’s the first thing we need to do?”
STUDENTS: “Think about what we’re going to say.”
TEACHER: “Good [writes it down], and after we decide what to say, what should we do next?”
STUDENTS: “Think about how we are going to say it over and over again.”
TEACHER: “Good, in other words, use broken-record approach [writes this down]. What else?”
STUDENTS: “Try to stay calm.”
TEACHER: “OK, and what can we do to stay calm?”
STUDENTS: “Do some belly breathing.”
TEACHER: “Good [writes this down]. Is there anything else we need to include in our plan?” [pause]
After this first go-round, you might want to look at each of the steps in the plan and ask your students whether there are any obstacles that might arise and how long they expect it will take to arrive at goal satisfaction (i.e., get the other student out of their seat). For example:
TEACHER: “Can you think of anything that might keep you from reaching your goal?”
STUDENTS: “Yeah, the kid might get mad and try to hurt you.”
TEACHER: “OK, what should you do if that happens?”
STUDENTS: “Walk away”; “Protect yourself so you don’t get hurt”; “Tell the teacher”
TEACHER: “Those are all good ideas. How long do you think it might take to reach your goal?”
STUDENTS: “A few seconds”; “Two days”; “A week”; “Five, ten minutes”
TEACHER: “Why do you think it might take days to get the student out of your seat?” [discuss] “Why do you think it might only take a few seconds?”