Study Skills

An area closely tied to content area performance is study skills. This is to say that if students do not perform well in content area classes, they typically have poor study strategies. Study strategies are systematic plans for getting, organizing and actually using information taught in school (Vaughn & Bos, 2012; Strichart & Mangrum, 1993). These strategies help students master subject matter data and demonstrate their knowledge in a variety of ways. The strategies below were described by Strichart and Mangrum (1993).

SRR is one strategy for teaching students how to remember information (S--how to Select information; R--how to Remember it; R--how to Review it).

Another strategy is visualizing information(for example, seeing their PC at home can help them on a test about computers).

The association strategy is another remembering tool. Teach the student to associate and categorize information. For example, given a list of words such as "train, truck, horse, goat, dog, and car," a student would learn how to place them into two lists--vehicles and animals--since it is easier to remember information in groups.

Repetition is yet another strategy. The student reads a word and its definition aloud, then says the word with his eyes closed, and then writes the word. Students repeat these steps until they can write the word and its definition from memory three times.

Mnemonic devices such as rhymes, acronyms, abbreviations, phrases, or pegwords help to remember information. Rhymes might include: in 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue. Acronyms might include MADD (mothers against drunk drivers); abbreviations can be used (United States Air Force is abbreviated USAF). Acronymic sentences help to remember information by forming a sentence (the planets can be remembered as "My very earthy mother just served us nachos" (for Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune). Finally, pegwords can be used to remember information. A set of pegwords might be: one-run, two-shoe, three-bee, etc. Then a student is taught to tack on words to the pegwords that have to be remembered. So, if a student had to learn 10 rights guaranteed under the Bill of Rights, he might remember the first right-freedom of religion-as a church running.

Another study strategy often taught to students having difficulty in school involves reading and taking notes from textbooks. This skill ties in closely to content area classes such as history and science. It is often referred to as SQ3R and, by some, SQ4R.

1. S-Survey – read the title and think about what it means; read the introduction; read the side headings; examine all visuals; read the last paragraph/conclusion.
2. Q-Question – read to answer questions to guide the learning process; questions are formed by placing the words who, what, where, when, why, or how in front of the title or side headings.
3. R-Read – read material to answer questions developed; learn how to add additional questions and change or delete based on what was read.
4. R-Recite – read the question and its answer aloud; read question then look away and answer aloud; read question aloud then close your eyes and say the answer aloud; repeat process three or more times then move on to next question.
5. R-Review – review for at least 3 days; write information, say aloud, say silently.
6. R-Reflect (Part of 4-R procedure) – think about how this information affects you; pull in past experience; think of relevance; try to connect with prior knowledge.

Similar to SQ4R is SQRQCQ. This strategy has been shown to be effective in helping students solve math word problems.

1. S-Survey – carefully read entire word problem; get clarification for anything not understood.
2. Q-Question – state the problem in the form of a question.
3. R-Read – differentiate between needed and extraneous information; write down key information and cross out what is not needed.
4. Q-Question – ask “What computation is needed to solve the problem?”
5. C-Compute – set up the problem and do the computation; check your work.
6. Q-Question – ask “Does my answer make sense?”

If students have problems reading and taking notes from books, they may also lack the skills to take notes during presentations. They write incomplete or disorganized information that may not help them study for quizzes or exams. Thus, they get low exam scores. One type of note taking strategy is the Get Ready, Take Notes, and After Notes strategy. It is illustrated below.

1. Get Ready – students gather all materials; review notes from previous class; do assigned readings; describe purpose of today’s presentation.
2. Take Notes – use a two-column format for taking notes with one heading labeled Rough Notes and the other heading labeled Don’t Understand; on the bottom of the page is a section entitled Vocabulary; students write their Rough Notes section while listening to lecture, make notes in the Don’t Understand section if they have questions, and list vocabulary words they don’t know in the Vocabulary section.
3. After Notes – rewrite notes with heading Final Notes; find out answers to questions and define vocabulary not known.

Yet another strategy, advocated by Lazarus (1996) and Heward et al. (2022), is the use of guided notes. Guided notes are skeleton outlines containing the main ideas of a lecture, with spacing for students to write in the details covered in the lecture. These guided notes may have more prompts, so students simply fill in blanks as they listen during the lecture, or fewer prompts, so that students do the majority of the writing. Here is an example of Courson's (1993) format:

Students listen and fill in important information. Over time, diminish the structure so students soon listen and take notes without written prompts.

Poor note-taking skills may also mean poor research skills and the inability to do research papers. Given the level of specificity of an assignment such as this, students with ADHD may have difficulty even beginning such a task. A ten-step strategy for writing a research paper is presented. Students are directly taught each of the steps for completing a research paper in a successful manner.

1. Choose a topic.
2. Locate sources of information.
3. Prepare bibliography cards.
4. Prepare note cards.
5. Prepare outline of paper.
6. Write the paper.
7. Prepare footnotes.
8. Prepare bibliography.
9. Prepare title page and table of contents.
10. Do final proofing.

Deficiency in all these study skills leads to difficulty in taking tests. Test taking is a skill in and of itself. The Five-Day Test Preparation strategy can be taught to aid these students. You schedule studying to begin five days before the test. The students should ask what type of test is to be given. They should use the SQ4R strategy when reading the text, and use one of the note-taking strategies for lecture information. In the 5 days before the test:

Day 5...Review notes, ask questions.
Day 4...Use remembering techniques.
Day 3...Rewrite notes in briefer form.
Day 2...Write questions you think will appear on test and answer them.
Day 1...(test day) Review notes before test.

Strategies are also taught for particular types of tests.

Multiple Choice Tests

• Underline key words (not/incorrect/except).
• Cross out incorrect answers.
• Do not change an answer unless 100% sure it is incorrect.
• Read stem of question with each answer.
• Look for clues; "All of the above" is usually correct.

True/False Tests

• Assume true unless it can be proven false.
• Watch for negatives (not/never).

Completion Tests

• Read and think about what is missing.
• Use length of blank as clue.

Matching Tests

• Read all items in both columns before answering.
• Cross out items in both columns as you use them.

Essay Tests

• Highlight key words (list/describe).
• Proof-read.
• Answer all parts.

Students with ADHD may require more time to complete tests and assignments and to master information. These students often have few strategies for remaining on-task, budgeting their time, or developing a schedule for completing their work. One strategy recommended includes the following:

1. Semester Calendar – students lay out all projects, tests, papers, etc. on a semester calendar.
2. Weekly Planner – after planning the semester calendar, students should plan what is due on the weekend before each week of the semester.
3. Daily Organizer – each evening before a school day, students should plan what is due the following day.
4. Study Habits Checklist – a checklist is used to help students determine what may or may not be working when they study such as “I begin with the hardest assignment” or I have a study buddy.”
5. Study Place Checklist – a checklist is used to help students determine what may or may not be working in the setting where they study such as “it is quiet” or “there is good light.”

The development of social skills often opens the door for students with ADHD; they make more friends, have better relationships with parents and teachers, and can access the community with more success. Social skills are best taught by a direct instruction approach. A teacher or peer models appropriate social skills with explanations about what is occurring and why, and provides opportunities for students to practice these skills with opportunities to gain feedback on their performances (Lewis & Doorlag, 1999; Meese, 2001).

One effective strategy used to teach social skills involves coincidental teaching. Teachers and parents identify opportunities to teach a particular social skill in a variety of natural settings (Schulze et al., 1989; Heward et al., 2022). When the opportunity arises in a natural context (e.g., a friend approaches), a parent or teacher would first wait to see whether the student says hello; if not, the student would be prompted with the question, "What should you say to your friends when you first see them?"

Generalizations are reinforced. Coincidental teaching takes little time to implement, is effective, and promotes generalization, since it is incorporated into a student's day (sessions are not contrived). Elliott and Gresham (1991) and Meese (2001) note that effective strategies used to promote social skills often include:

• Modeling – showing students how to act.
• Behavioral Rehearsal – practicing newly acquired behavior in a structured role playing situation; may involve covert, verbal, and overt rehearsal.
• Coaching – presenting rules, providing opportunities for feedback and providing specific performance-based feedback.
• Social Problem Solving – solving problems with everyone, or in small groups, in a class or game format.
• Peer-Initiated Strategies – allowing peers to initiate and maintain social interactions.
• Cueing and Prompting – giving students specific directions to follow when social skills are needed (fade these cues over time).
• Reinforcement-Based Strategies – praising students when they perform requisite skills.
• Group Oriented Contingencies – applying consequences based on the performance of a group of children.

Classroom Routines
Establishing classroom routines can make the difference between an organized, well-run classroom--and disaster. Classroom routines pertain to establishing and implementing classroom rules, managing instructional time and transitions, managing materials, handling student requests for assistance, managing paperwork and dealing with behavior problems. Anita Archer describes the “I do-We do-You do” strategy as effective in working with students.

“I do” is modeling what you want the student to do. For example, if you want to teach a young child to sit on a carpet square, you have to show him how to do it directly. This may involve examples of how to sit on the carpet square and non-examples of how NOT to sit on the carpet square.

"We do"is the teacher and student participating together. The teacher observes the student and gives feedback on his or her performance. For example, now the teacher tells the child to show how he can sit on a carpet square (“show me how to sit on the carpet square”). The teacher praises the child for sitting on the carpet square (“that’s the way to sit on the carpet square”) or provides corrective feedback (“this is how you sit on a carpet square, now show me how you sit on a carpet square”). The teacher may ask the child questions based on examples and non-examples (“Is this how you sit on a carpet square?”).

“You do” is the student doing it autonomously. This is done only after correct performance is shown during the "we do" stage. Now the teacher asks the child to do it by himself (e.g., “Show me how to sit on the carpet square”). We recommend this strategy whenever you teach a skill or routine. It is efficient and helps to prevent failure and frustration. It also helps to maintain a well-organized classroom that is conducive to learning. There is more time to learn because there is less time spent on remediating inappropriate behavior.

Instructional Factors
Ten factors have been identified as being important for maintaining a well-organized classroom that is conducive to learning. These factors were identified in an extensive review of the psychology and education literature (Christenson, Ysseldyke, & Thurlow, 1989; Martella, Nelson, Marchand-Martella, & O’Reilly, 2012) and still hold true today. They are:

1. The degree to which classroom management is effective and efficient (includes a few essential classroom rules and teaches them directly--consistent follow-through, instructional routines, brief transitions and a well-organized classroom).
2. The degree to which there is a sense of "positiveness" in the school environment (teachers believe all students can learn; high realistic expectations for success; reinforcement of student productivity; strong leadership; parent collaboration).
3. The degree to which there is an appropriate instructional match (student is able to complete task with high success rate and task is academically relevant; learning task is matched to student's aptitude).
4. The degree to which teaching goals and teacher expectations for student performance and success are stated clearly and are understood by the student (goals are communicated frequently and clearly; mastery criteria are set; goals state what students will do and what they will learn).
5. The degree to which lessons are presented clearly and follow specific instructional procedures (new vocabulary is taught directly; explicit instruction is given; there is a demonstration/prompt/practice sequence; learning principles are applied systematically).
6. The degree to which instructional support is provided for the individual student (process is monitored/adjusted; increased time to learn is provided).
7. The degree to which sufficient time is allocated to academics and instructional time is used efficiently (activities with a high rate of success are chosen).
8. The degree to which the student's opportunity to respond is high (students who engage in active academic responding, such as writing and responding orally, make greater gains in achievement than do students who are passive).
9. The degree to which the teacher actively monitors student progress and understanding (monitoring is an active, frequent process, so that instructional changes can be made right away).
10. The degree to which student performance is evaluated appropriately and frequently (evaluation must align with what is taught--called curriculum or instructional alignment).

Instructional Cycle
You are advised to use the effective instructional cycle whenever you teach students (Hudson, Lignugaris, Kraft, & Miller, 1993; Lignugaris-Kraft, 2004; Martella, Nelson, Marchand-Martella, & O’Reilly, 2012). The cycle begins with planning instruction (e.g., selecting content, allocating instructional time, grouping students and pretesting). Next, establish a learning set (check homework, review previous learning, state lesson objectives and communicate performance goals). After a learning set is established, present new material and provide guided practice. Teachers should model what they want students to do, including examples of this as well as non-examples. Give students ample opportunity to practice the skill with feedback (both corrective and positive) provided. Reteaching may be needed. Next, teachers should provide independent practice. During this stage of the cycle, allow students opportunities to do the task on their own. Active supervision is provided. Next, student progress is evaluated. Instructional decisions are made based on student performance. This leads back to planning instruction, and the cycle begins again. Can you see the similarity between this and the “I do-We do-You do” Strategy? The “I do” is the presenting new material stage; the “We do” is the guided practice stage; and the “You do” is the independent practice stage.

Providing Praise
With all of these strategies, praise is essential. Try to use specific feedback in your praise (Martella, Marchand-Martella, Miller, Young, & Macfarlane, 1995; Martella, Nelson, Marchand-Martella, & O’Reilly, 2012). For example, say "Good job reading that paragraph, Mary," rather than, "Good." The rule for using these two types of praise is roughly 50/50. A lower-level learner may require more specific praise, since it provides much more information.

Error Corrections
Similar to praise is error correction. An effective error correction procedure to use involves the model, lead, test, retest strategy which actually is used in the Direct Instruction curriculum previously described. When a student makes an error (now called a learning opportunity), you should:

• Model: Immediately state the correct response positively.
• Lead: Have the student repeat the response with you.
• Test: Have the student repeat the response.
• Retest: Repeat the task to get an independent student response.

Instructional Cues
If you want a student to perform a task or respond to your instructions, you should...

• ...Provide a statement in a succinct manner without phrasing it as a question (e.g., "John, please pick up the paper on the floor," versus "John, could you please pick up the paper on the floor?").
• ...Specify the desired motor or verbal response ("Tom, write your name on the top left-hand corner of your paper," as opposed to "Write it" or "Do it").
• ...Use a neutral or positive tone of voice.
• ...Have a time delay of five seconds between statements, as opposed to rapidly repeating yourself (Martella and colleagues, 1995, 2012).

Multi-Modality Instruction
Many individuals advocate learning styles inventories and matching student’s preferences to his or her own unique way of learning. Unfortunately, little empirical support exists backing the necessity to use learning styles instruction or inventories. Here is the rule of thumb--whenever you plan instruction, be sure to include all modalities. That is, include a visual, auditory, and tactile/kinesthetic component in every lesson. Then there is no need to pigeon-hole a child into one modality or the next. The same holds true for the right-brain/left-brain inventories and curricula. There is no empirical validation for their use.

Structure and Expectations
You have learned throughout this exercise that teacher-directed instruction is a crucial part of teaching students with ADHD. The rule of thumb is that the lower the level of the learner, the higher the amount of structure, and vice-versa. Keep this in mind when you develop your own programs. Fade structure out over time when students have acquired the skill.

Finally, for students with ADHD, it is important to have low tolerance and high expectations rather than high tolerance and low expectations. We must work toward meeting the needs of these students. Providing effective instructional procedures and field-tested curricula will allow teachers the opportunities to maintain high expectations because students will be able to reach the goals set by teachers. They will be able to finally experience success. This brings us back to our detective work--we must continue to search for effective strategies in dealing with students with ADHD. Jitendra et al. (2007) and Evans, Serpell, Schultz, and Pastor (2007) describe important consultation-based academic programs that may prove helpful in improving school functioning outcomes for students with ADHD.