Speech & Language Terminology

Speech Terminology

The term oral motor refers to the ability to physically produce mouth and tongue movements.  This involves the ability to plan, move, and sequence muscle movements on command.  Recent research suggests that as many as 40% of individuals with autism are nonverbal due to oral motor difficulties known as oral apraxia, a neurologically-based disorder.  Individuals with apraxia display very labored and uncoordinated oral motor movements.  This can be seen when they are attempting to verbalize and, in some, even when they are attempting to chew.  It is as though they just can’t get their mouths to work.  Apraxia can range from not being able to form sounds to difficulty co-articulating movements for word production all the way up to the sentence level.

Phonology refers to the rules associated with sound usage and production.  For example, we understand that as one's "sound system" develops, it progresses from vowel sounds (saying "ah"), to consonant-vowel combinations (saying "da," "ma"), to repetitious combinations (saying "mama," "baba"), to simple words (saying "dog"). 

The actual ability to produce specific sounds within words is referred to as articulation. Many verbal individuals with autism display adequate articulation abilities, while others display reduced speech intelligibility that affects the communication process. What is important to remember here is that if the individual does not have the oral motor coordination to physically plan, move, and sequence movements on command, he or she will have difficulty producing sounds. Do you see how these are connected?

Voice characteristics include pitch, inflection, volume, and the quality of a person's voice. Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder, especially those who are verbal, display an array of weaknesses in vocal characteristics. Some may use a higher pitch when responding to others than when spontaneously requesting something. Some speak too loudly or so softly that their listener can barely hear them. Some are able to change the quality of their voice to sound like a character from a favorite video, while others change their voice to match that of the person they are echoing. Many individuals will use a higher pitch when they are anxious.  The more anxious they become in a situation, the higher the pitch.   

Fluency of speech refers to the ability to speak readily without repetition of sounds, syllables, or words. It also includes speaking without hesitations or fillers. An example of lack of fluency might be saying “um” every time before speaking. Some highly verbal individuals with autism display fluency difficulties. One teenager says “umm” several times in a sentence, appearing to organize his thoughts before saying the next part of the sentence. A verbal second grader with autism stuttered when he was anxious. The stuttering increased when he changed schools, and then diminished during the school year.

Language Terminology

Semantics refers to the study of words and their meanings, but more than that, it includes concepts, problem solving, reasoning, and the ability to process the subtleties that are associated with the actual words spoken. This is one of the areas of greatest difficulty for verbal individuals with Autism. The main reason is that people with Autism Spectrum Disorder cannot easily make sense out of information that is presented orally. What they do understand, they often understand very literally. Highly verbal individuals with autism can verbally solve problems presented to them because they know the answer, but when placed in the actual situation, they freeze and are unable to take the information they know and act on it.

Syntax refers to the grammatical rules of language. This includes:

• Understanding and using pronouns
• Using verb forms (present, past, and future tense)
• Formulating sentences

Verbal individuals with Autism may show specific deficits in sentence formation. The most common difficulties are with correct use of pronouns and verb forms. Individuals with Autism typically refer to themselves by their proper names and use verbs in present or simple past tense. For example, when Joey wants a cookie, he says, “Joey want a cookie.” Highly verbal individuals may have difficulty with verb forms, but many use syntax appropriately.

Pragmatics refers to using language for communicative purposes. It involves intentionally using language to communicate wants, needs, likes and dislikes; to comment, seek attention, and express opinions and feelings; and to interact socially with others and engage in conversation. It also includes understanding and using the rules that govern communication. This includes appreciating the other person’s point of view, maintaining appropriate physical proximity, staying on topic, and taking turns in speaking. This is the area in which verbal individuals with autism need the most intervention. They need to be taught to use their language in a socially appropriate manner. They also need to practice using their language within contrived situations in order for it to become functional within their environment. It is important we really look at the pragmatic aspect of language when attempting to teach a child with autism to speak or express themselves. B.F. Skinner, in his book Verbal Behavior (1957), described his research on speaker behavior. The field of applied Behavior Analysis and more specifically Verbal Behavior examines language in terms of its function or purpose.

Functions of Language refers to the fact that a word can serve a variety of purposes and that just because a person can use a word in one way does not mean that it will automatically transfer to the person’s using the same word for a different purpose. It looks at WHY the student said what he said UNDER what circumstances. Skinner did not create anything new; he uncovered/discovered what nature decided, which is “I can control the environment – I can get what I want by doing…” For example: the teacher says: “What do you want?” and the student replies: “Juice.” The student has requested juice and he is reinforced by getting the juice. But now consider this example: the teacher holds up a picture of juice and says: “What is it?” The student says: “Juice.” He is then reinforced by the teacher’s providing praise. He does not get juice.

Skinner provides us with the following functions:

• Mand: From “Demand,” a verbal behavior where the speaker asks for what he wants (in a pure mand, the object is not present). This can include using PECS system (e.g., icon for music when you want to dance) ‏ as well as sign (e.g., signing “help” when you are unable to unlock a door), ‏ and it can include screaming to get out of work.
• Tact: A verbal operant where the response is controlled by a prior nonverbal stimulus—e.g. see a chair and say “chair.” It is a labeling or naming behavior (happens in the presence of the stimulus). Naming, labeling, and so forth are more complex examples. If the antecedent is a verbal stimulus, it is NOT a TACT! If a teacher says, “What is this?” and the person answers “cat,” the verbal stimulus is an intraverbal prompt. One can name/label many things…nouns, verbs, descriptions, relations, functions of items, and internal events (e.g., stomachache, headache)‏.
• Echoic/Mimetic: Imitative repertoire – the stimulus is auditory/visual and the response is an identical auditory/visual. Imitation of a vocal verbal unit. There is point-to-point correspondence with formal similarity, as with the parrot who will imitate what others say. When a child copies everything you say: “Goodnight Tyler,” says mom; “Goodnight Tyler” says Tyler; and so on.
• Receptive: Non verbally responding to the language of others. This is under the control of an antecedent. It is a mand to comply. It is also referred to as listener behavior. This behavior benefits the speaker (aka teacher), not the listener. For example: retrieving the newspaper from the front door step when asked to do so.
• Intraverbal: A type of verbal stimulus that lacks point-to-point correspondence to the response (the stimulus and response don’t match). Again, this is also under control of an antecedent, specifically a verbal question or statement. Intraverbals allow the “speaker” to talk about objects and events even though those objects and events are not present. This includes conversations (answering questions, participating in reciprocal conversation). Early intraverbals include filling in the blanks and finishing song lines and association pairs.
• Feature Function Class (FFC): Receptive understanding/verbal expression by Feature, Function or Class – touch a dog when asked, “Which one barks?” Tell me things that are cold. This skill requires the student or individual to identify or react to an object not by name, but when told something about the object (its feature, function, or class) or when given a verbal instruction that varies from the specifically trained instruction. Individuals must be able to respond to the many variations in verbal instructions that are related to everyday objects and actions in the environment. It is otherwise known as being able to respond to and talk about words. It is a higher level of language.
• Textual: A vocal response is controlled by a written stimulus. Very simply, writing what you see exactly: the same numbers, letters, in the same language. Examples include copying a phone number from a book and children copying their assignments for the week off the board…when learning to spell words, copying a template.
• Reading text: The antecedent stimulus is verbal (not necessarily vocal) and has point-to-point correspondence; however, it is not the same topography/form. Examples of this are obviously reading text, transcribing words, finger spelling what you hear, and saying what you see finger spelled.