Theories

Unlike Piaget's, Vygotsky’s theory of cognitive development emphasizes the social context in which intelligence develops. Vygotsky believed that language--both conversing with others and talking to oneself--is the foundation for cognitive growth.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) - The range of tasks that a child cannot accomplish alone but can succeed at with some help from others. This is done by scaffolding, or adjusting support as needed. Adults will question, prompt, and encourage a child’s efforts to scaffold the child in his or her ZPD.

Scaffolding has five major steps, according to Vygotsky:

1. Recruitment: adult invites the child to do task
2. Simplification: adult makes tasks easier
3. Direction: adult helps child stay on task with encouragement
4. Marking: adult shows what is important for child to focus on
5. Demonstration: adult models task for child

Other important socio-cultural terms:

• Private speech - Self-directed speech that can be called “thinking out loud.” It is based on the adult scaffolding a child has received. Unlike Piaget, who called this egocentric speech, Vygotsky thought private speech was important for children to plan and guide their own behavior. Research has supported Vygotsky’s view and found that the more difficult a task, the more private speech is used (Patrick & Abravanel, 2000). As children mature this speech becomes silent and eventually internal.
• Intersubjectivity - Two individuals with different understandings when they begin a task will develop a shared understanding by the end (Newson & Newson, 1975). Vygotsky considered intersubjectivity (along with scaffolding) an essential component of cognitively enriching social interactions. This starts with the exchange of facial expressions and imitation and is advanced with language. Between ages three and five, children will have intersubjective interactions with peers as well.

This theory focused on the mental strategies used by children to learn, retain, and retrieve information. The mind is viewed as similar to a computer. Three main areas are outlined by this theory are:

• Attention - This ability increases dramatically around age three because of rapid frontal lobe growth and adult guidance or scaffolding. This enables preschoolers to be better at creating and following a plan.
• Memory - Composed of recognition and recall. Preschoolers are very good at recognition but still struggle with remembering without perceptual support (recall). Memory does improve because of children’s language development and their beginning use of memory strategies. These are deliberate attempts to retain information, usually by rehearsal or organization. An example of a memory strategy is ROY G. BIV, which helped many of us learn the colors in order.
• Problem solving - Research has found that young children solve problems using an overlapping wave pattern. This means multiple solutions are generated and then tried, many at the same time or overlapping. Children eventually abandon the least successful strategies in favor of the fastest and most accurate (Siegler, 1996).

Robert Sternberg (1997) theorized that cognitive ability, or IQ, is really made up of three interacting types of intelligence. These three interrelated intelligences must work together in a balanced and complex manner for an individual to be successful. Sternberg’s theory emphasizes the importance of the speed of cognitive processing and ability for divergent thinking.

The three intelligences:

1. Analytical intelligence - Information processing skills; acquiring knowledge and applying strategies
2. Creative intelligence - The ability to generate solutions to problems experientially
3. Practical intelligence - Applying intellectual skills in daily life situations by adapting, shaping, and selecting the environment. This is the intelligence most influenced by culture.

In 1983, Howard Gardner wrote a book that theorized that many more types of “intelligences” exist than those measured by traditional IQ tests. He originally found seven core intelligences and later added an eighth (naturalist) in 1999. Garner believes that there may be more types than the ones listed and a ninth category (existential) has been suggested but not yet added officially.

The theory of multiple intelligences is an educational theory that suggests that each person has an individual “cognitive profile” reflecting his or her own strengths in various types of intelligences. This raw potential can be developed through education and the environment. Gardner believes that education should address each person’s unique profile of strengths and weaknesses to best meet the learning needs of every child.

Gardner differentiated intelligences from skills or interests by using several criteria, including the existence of a specialized brain area and a symbolic language for the intelligence. Many scholars have criticized Gardner’s theory for several reasons. Chief among these are that MI theory lacks strong neurological evidence, the core intelligences overlap, and it was created ad hoc. Despite the criticism and limitations of MI theory, Gardner has helped educators see intelligence in a wider, more comprehensive manner.

The core multiple intelligences:

• Linguistic intelligence (word smart) - Sounds and meanings of words and language (verbal) Examples: writing poetry, playing Scrabble, debating, and reading for pleasure
• Logical-mathematical intelligence (number smart) - Logical or numerical patterns and reasoning Examples: playing Sudoku, logic puzzles, and mathematical computations
• Spatial intelligence (picture smart) - Perception and reproduction of visual experiences like maps or art Examples: pottery, graphics, packing, and navigating
• Bodily-kinesthetic intelligence (body smart) - Body and object skills and expressions Examples: dancing, sports, crafts, and building
• Musical intelligence (music smart) - Pitch, rhythm, tone, and ability to hear and reproduce sounds Examples: singing, dancing, instrument playing, and writing songs
• Interpersonal intelligence (people smart) - The emotions, motivations, and intentions of others Examples: socializing, counseling, teaching, extroversion, and relating
• Intrapersonal intelligence* (self smart) - Reflective of own emotions, motivations, and intentions Examples: self-knowing, introversion, and introspection
• Naturalist intelligence* (nature smart) - Recognize and classify plants, animals, and weather Example: gardening, farming, life and earth sciences, wilderness sports, and conservationism

*These last two intelligences together are called emotional intelligence (details in the Social-Emotional section).